Cyber Warfare in Middle Eastern Cross-Border Conflicts: IHL Compliance, 2024–2026
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Abstract
Digital technology has transformed contemporary armed conflict by making cyberspace an arena of strategic competition and operations. Cross-border conflicts in the Middle East during 2024–2026 show growing cyber activity alongside military operations, information campaigns, and geopolitical rivalry. This study analyzes cyber warfare in these conflicts and evaluates compliance with the principles of distinction, proportionality, military necessity, and precautions in attack. Using a qualitative case-study and descriptive-analytical approach, it draws on academic literature, international legal documents, international-organization reports, cybersecurity reports, and credible media coverage. The findings show that cyber operations have become part of multidomain conflict, especially in the Israel–Iran and Israel–Gaza contexts. Assessment of compliance with International Humanitarian Law remains difficult because of attribution problems, uncertain target status, dual-use infrastructure, civilian effects, and limited evidence about operational purpose and precautionary measures. IHL principles remain applicable, but compliance must be assessed case by case on verifiable evidence rather than by assuming that all cyber activity during conflict constitutes a legal violation.
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